Krell v Henry and Herne Bay Stream v Hutton - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2098 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Argumentative essay Level High school Did you like this example? To what extent would you describe the reasoning in Krell v Henry [1903] 2KB 740 and Herne Bay Steam Boat Company v Hutton [1903] 2 KB 683 as either compatible or incompatible?Date authored: 23 rd July, 2014. On the 9th August 1902, the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandria took place. However, the festivities were originally planned for the 26th June of that year, having been postponed due to the King falling ill with an abdominal abscess. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Krell v Henry and Herne Bay Stream v Hutton" essay for you Create order This delay gave rise to a number of cases brought by parties who had contracted into arrangements whereby they could watch and participate in the (as originally scheduled) royal celebrations. Of these so-called ‘coronation cases, Krell v Henry [1] and Herne Bay Steamboat Co v Hutton [2] are the two that arguably led to the greatest refinement of the English law doctrine of frustration of contract. Both relied on the authority of Taylor v Caldwell [3] which clarified the position on contractual impossibility, a flavour of frustration which asserts that both parties to a contractual obligation may be freed from it if, by no fault of their own, performance of the contract was made impossible. Particularly, if the impossibility pertains to something which ‘strikes to the root of the contract, then both parties would be restored to their original position, as far as was possible. The assumed approach to frustration of contract involving contractual impossibilities was to examine whether or not the absence was implicitly central to the contract. Both of the aforementioned cases took this test – and the Taylor case as a whole – as a starting point, though the differing judgements present a prima facie incompatibility. However, it could be argued that the reasoning in both cases is largely compatible and logically consistent. Moreover, it could be argued that both cases read together have led to a greater cl arification of the doctrine of frustration which is evident from subsequent case law. Krell and Herne Bay are distinguishable in terms of both the material facts and the decision reached. Krell concerned a defendant who rented a flat from which he intended to watch the coronation procession. The contract was held to be frustrated, even though he could still rent and occupy the flat, as the viewing of the procession (now impossible due to its rescheduling) was deemed to be the foundation of the contract. Even though the coronation was not explicitly mentioned during the pre-contractual negotiations, the court concluded that this intent was both implicit and integral. In Herne Bay Steamboat Co v Hutton the defendant contracted to hire a steamship to watch the royal naval review and to take a â€Å"days cruise around the fleet†. This contract was not held to be frustrated; even though the naval review was no longer possible, the defendant could still take part in t he cruise regardless. We see, therefore, a fundamental irreconcilability in the application of the ‘implied term test established in Taylor; in both cases the parties entered into their respective contracts with the royal festivities being the implicit reason for the contract. That there is another element – that of a general cruise around the fleet – in Herne Bay should be irrelevant; ostensibly the court had taken a less absolute view of the hiring parties intent in making their judgement. Criticism has particularly focused on Krell – Roberts (2003, para. 30.) paints the ruling in Mr Henrys favour as being fundamentally at odds with the common law principle of sanctity of contract. In Herne Bay, Stirling J accepted the logic of Taylor, but said the fact that the parties could still visit the fleet denied the possibility of frustration. He opined that the royal naval review was descriptive as to the nature of the trip, but not fully indicative of what was contracted for. In essence, the contract was limited, but not utterly diminished; that is, the cruise itself could still, and would still, go ahead as planned, merely without the coronation element. Therefore, the cases demonstrate judicial analysis of Taylor yet a reluctance to adhere to its core tenets; in Herne Bay there was held to be no frustration even in the case of a unique subject matter, lost due to impossibility, which stood as an overt reason for forming the contract. The treatment in this case becomes more similar to non-frustratory contract cases where a pursuer sues over a ‘loss of enjoyment, such as in Jarvis v Swan Tours[4]. I would argue, however, that instead of an incompatibility – the extent to which either case followed the Taylor reasoning – these decisions instead indicate a move to the more elegant test discussed in the later case of Davis Contractors v Fareham Urban District Council [5]. In this case, Lord Radcliff e reasoned that frustration would be possible when â€Å"such a change [has occurred] in the significance of the obligation that the thing undertaken would, if performed, be a different thing from that contracted for.† This test asserts that if the supervening act radically changes the subject matter of the contract then it will be frustration. If Krell and Herne Bay indeed contain an early iteration of the test in Davis, then they are compatible within this framework. To elaborate, in Herne Bay the royal presence may have formed part of the pre-contractual consensus; however, the contract would not be radically different after the change of circumstances as Mr Hutton could still make a profit from taking passengers on a pleasant tour around the fleet regardless of the timing of the coronation. Mr Henrys use of the flat, conversely, would be radically different as he would be obliged to make payment for a flat he has no use for, watching the coronation being the sole purpose of the rental agreement. Krell, therefore, is not merely distinguishable and of limited scope of application as opined by Koffman and Macdonald (2010. p.511), but just as thematically consistent with the ‘radical difference test as Herne Bay. Continuing to suppose that Krell and Herne Bay share an early adoption of the â€Å"radical difference† test, we may examine two cases which share the echoes of their logical reasoning; Nickoll and Knight v Ashton Eldridge Co [6] and Tsakrioglou Co Ltd v Noblee Thorl GmbH [7] . Nickoll concerned a stranded ship which was unable to deliver its cargo. As in Krell, the impossibility of performance is clearly radically different to what both parties intended. In Tsakrioglou, another merchant shipping case, the ship in question was unable to deliver its cargo through the Suez canal – as originally agreed by both parties – due to political reasons. The court held that taking the alternative Cape of Africa route was not frustratory. This case, as in Herne Bay, may have fallen on a bare interpretation of Taylor, but the court maintained that even limited performance should be upheld. It also suggests a high bar for situations in which courts will agree that frustration has taken place. This high bar further supports the idea that Krell and Herne Bay share compatible reasoning; the courts have been keen to prevent frustration from being an easy escape from a contract for fickle parties. Treitel (2004, para 7.14) points out that the conti nuation of any part of the contract apart from something trivial makes frustration unlikely.In Blackburn Bobbin Co v Allen [8] the outbreak of war was held not to be frustratory, even given concerns by the merchant shipping company that the goods would be destroyed due to the predations of the Imperial German navy. This high threshold – which exists to prevent buyers evading a minor disappointment, or vendors a more difficult method of supply – is evident in Krell and Herne Bay (with regards the former, Morgan (2013, p120) suggests the high threshold has been reached as Mr Henry lacked an obligation to reschedule given that the King may not have survived his appendix surgery). As well as both cases being decided â€Å"correctly† against the high threshold for successful frustration, both demonstrate a common judicial reluctance to infer too much of the mental thought processes of the parties. Brownsword (1993, p246-247) puts forward a key distinction; Mr Krell was treated as a consumer he had a very specific intent in mind, an assumption the court had little difficulty in basing their judgement upon. In Herne Bay, however, the Court of Appeal was unwilling to infer such a clear purpose. Mr Hutton intended to hire the steamship so that he could in turn hire the use of it to paying guests. Stirling J asserted that the â€Å"risk fell on the defendant whose venture the taking of passengers was†. This suggests a shared reasoning – the judges are more likely to be able to establish the root of a contract where it concerns a disappointed consumer rather than assess the nebulous interests of remote third parties in the more commercial situation seen in Herne Bay. Alternatively, it can be said that compatibility simply is not relevant. As indicated above, it can be argued that the evolution from Taylor to the test in Davis is a move towards a fairer system. However, Lord Wilberforce in National Carriers v Panalpi na [9] was reluctant to assert the supremacy of either test. He suggested they overlapped considerably and that the one used is the one â€Å"most appropriate to the particular contract under consideration†, that is, the tests should be used on a case by case basis depending on the specifics of that particular situation. Furmiston et al (2012, p.722) draws an analogy to the standard of the reasonable man, suggesting the organic approach taken in these cases was correct. To conclude, the reasoning in both the cases examined is compatible. The judges Vaughan Williams J, Stirling J and Romer J sat on both cases, and it cannot reasonably be inferred that they intended to create clarification on the precedent laid down in Taylor without ensuring the cases can be read in concert with one another. Indeed, the words of the judges suggest that they had precedential consistency very much aforethought; Vaughan Williams J stated that all cases of this type must be decided on their own merits, indicating a preference for the more organic approach later seen in Davis. He even went on to evoke a strong analogy akin to the facts of Herne Bay when making his judgement in Krell; that of someone who has hired a taxi to take him to the Epsom Derby. Even in the event of the cancellation of the Derby, the contract to convey the hirer to Epsom still exists. As previously stated, both cases stand under the weight of the later approach taken towards frustration in cases such as Davis, that of looking at whether or not the contract is so radically different as to make freeing the parties from it the only fair and reasonable course of action. Additionally, the cases clearly delineate situations in which a court will be willing to apply the doctrine of frustration – the court plainly saw the contract was robbed of its commercial value in Krell yet recognised the situation in Herne Bay was still commercially viable; as Lord Roskill in Pioneer Shipping v BTP Tioxide [10] remarked, the doctrine of frustration was â€Å"not lightly to be invoked to relieve contracting parties of the normal consequences of imprudent commercial bargains†. The cases clearly demonstrate how this doctrine may be correctly applied. As the cases fit so comfortably within the radical difference test and the reasoning applied to each of them can be seen in following case law, we can conclude that they are compatible. Bibliography References Furmston M. P. (2012) Cheshire, Fifoot Furmstons Law of Contract (16th edition, Oxford University Press) Koffman L. and Macdonald E. (2010) The Law of Contract (7th edition, Oxford University Press) Treitel, G. (2004) Frustration and Force Majeure (2nd edition, Sweet Maxwell) Brownsword, R. (1993) ‘Towards a rational law of contract, in Willhelmson, T. (ed), Perspectives of Critical Contract Law (Aldershot: Dartmouth) Morgan, J. (2014) Contract Law Minimalism: A Formalist Restatement of Commercial Contract Law (1st edition, Cambridge University Press) Roberts, T. (2003) ‘Commercial Impossibility and Frustration of Purpose: A Critical Analysis, 16 Can. J. L. Juris 129 Cases Blackburn Bobbin Co Ltd v Allen (T.W) Sons Ltd [1918] 2 KB 467 Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham Urban District Council [1956] UKHL 3 Herne Bay Steamboat Co v Hutton [1903] 2 KB 683 Jarvis v Swans Tours Ltd [1972] EWCA Civ 8 Krell v Henry [1903] 2 KB 740 National Carriers v Panalpina [1981] AC 675 Nicholl and Knight v Ashton , Eldridge Co [1901] 2 KB 126 Pioneer Shipping Ltd v BTP Tioxide Ltd [1982] AC 724 Taylor v Caldwell [1863] EWHC QB J1 Tsakiroglou Co Ltd v Noblee Thorl GmbH [1962] AC 93 Internet Resources www.lexisnexis.co.uk legalresearch.westlaw.co.uk [1] [1903] 2 KB 740 [2] [1903] 2 KB 683 [3] [1863] EWHC QB J1 [4] [1972] EWCA Civ 8 [5] [1956] UKHL 3 [6] [1901] 2 KB 126 [7] [1962] AC 93 [8] [1918] 2 KB 467 [9] [1981] AC 675 [10] [1982] AC 724

Supply Chain Management Practice, Theory, And Future...

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Samla’s Personal Statement Free Essays

â€Å"The vision that you glorify in your mind, the ideal that you enthrone in your heart – this you will build your life by, and this you will become. † These very powerful words, written by James Allen, are a perfect description of how I have accomplished many of my goals. My main objective is to obtain a full time position with a public accounting firm to render professional services in the field of auditing. We will write a custom essay sample on Samla’s Personal Statement or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some years ago, a former student of University of California, Irvin brought my attention to the field of auditing. I took the initiative to find out more about this career. After extensive research on the nature of the work, training and advancements, I felt this is something I could really enjoy doing for the rest of my life. I began exploring the different fields that are related to auditing programs offered and making campus visits. After several visits and consults I was attracted to the CSUF because the school allows new students to involve themselves in independent research, requiring initiative, self-motivation and a wide range of skills within the first few months and also allow students to go out for industrial practical exposure at one point or the other on a yearly basis throughout the duration of the degree. Since many of us, at one point or the other in our life, we need a professional care and assessment as regards our finance management be it an organization or the money we save or trade with or in any other capacity . So, I see this as an opportunity and it brings me great pleasure thinking about the effect I could have on the populace at large. Therefore, I have always been aware of equipping myself with solid foundations in IT and supporting knowledge in Business aspect in order to fulfill the challenging requirements of future working environment. Besides professional regular education, I have attended several trainings and extra courses instantly when I had chances and time. These include Software development, Networking, and Business development (Please refer to my resume). Academic Background and skills I attended Orange Coast College, Costa Mesa with Honors List and I major in Accounting where I got a befitting Orange Coast scholarship. I also attended Government Commercial college,Karachi,Pakistan where I had Bachelor of Commerce and I major in Accounting too. (Jan 2003-Dec 2004). Working experience My working experience dated back to early January 2004 when I was offered the post of an accountant at the Zaitoon M. A. Shakoor Brokerage Firm Karachi Stock Exchange, Karachi, and Pakistan. I was exposed to the various dynamics of stock market. 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Value Chain and REA Analysis

Question: Discuss about the Value Chain and REA Analysis. Answer: Introduction Due to growing complexities and future challenges in the health system implementation projects, it is essential for the Queensland Health System to manage the implementation, stabilization, and maintenance of the information system project implementation in order to ensure the smooth running of the business operations. This assessment will describe the factors that contributed to the failure of payroll system implementation project at the Queensland Healthcare System(Bischoff, 2011). This assessment will also propose several recommendations to identify deficiencies in the system analysis for ensuring the better implementation of the IS projects at Queensland Health System. Objective- The objective of this report is to identify and analyze the factors that contributed to the disastrous information system implementation projects at the Queensland Health System. This report is aimed at understanding the applications related to the project implementation failure at the Queensland health system on national and state legislations as well as industrial level. Factors contributing to the failure of the Queensland health payroll system implementation The Queensland Health Payroll System implementation project failure is one of the largest IS failures in the Southern Hemisphere that highlighted the significance of systematic project failure. This project failure accounted for costing to $ 1.25 Billion ASD ($ 245 million AUD for fixing the system failure problem and $1000 Million dollars for maintaining and operating the system). This IS project failure was 300% over budget and 18 months behind schedule. This project failure estimated costs $1.25 billion AUD in implementation, stabilization and maintenance of the system(ThiteSandhu, 2014). There were several reasons that contributed to the failure of the payroll system implementation at the Queensland Health System which are following as:- Lack of planning and failure to keep the robust tendering process- The poor project planning and failure of the project team members to put in place the robust tendering process contributed to the failure of the Queensland health system implementation project. Weak governance structure and Lack of clear roles, duties and responsibilities- The poor governance of the Queensland Health Implementation caused for the unclear and confused system implementation projects. It also created confusion in the roles, responsibilities, duties, authorities, and accountability of the several parties involved in the project implementation process. Lack of stakeholders participation and engagement in the companys decisions- The lack of all stakeholders engagement in the company meetings and decision-making process was another reason contributing to the failure of the Queensland Health Payroll System. Lack of risk management and poor contingency plan- The pre-implementation process and system testing failed to identify the risks that contributed to the Queensland IS implementation project failure. There was no contingency planning and monitoring process for managing risks that resulted into the over project budget costs for the project implementation activities(Horngren, Harrison, Oliver, Best, Fraser, Tan Willet, 2013). Lack of communication and training and poor management control- This was the root cause for the failure of the IS implementation project at the Queensland Health system. There was little communication or less conversations among the project team members that resulted into failure of the implementation of IS projects at Queensland Health System. Failure to deal up with the complex processes required for the implementation of a new system The management and project team members failed to deliver optimum project implementation results because of the failure of the project team members to clean up the complex processes for the successful implementation of the new payroll system At the Queensland Health System. Poor team management structures- The poorly designed team management structure was one of the key factors contributing to the failure of the Queensland payroll implementation projects greatly. The project team members were not assigned the projects activities as per their skills, knowledge, and specialization(Mancini, Vaassen, Dameri, 2013). Lack of commitment- The lack of commitment and self-responsibility among the staff members including doctors, nurses, managers, and other employees was another reason caused for the failure of payroll implementation project at the Queensland Health System. Lack of diligence on behalf of the state government officials- The unwarranted urgency and lack of diligence of the state government health officials caused for the poor decision making that resulted into failure of payroll implementation project at the Queensland Health system(Hall, 2012). Lack of accountability of the payment of staff members- This factor contributed to the failure of the IS implementation projects resulting from the lack of accountability among the employees of the Queensland Health System including nurses, doctors, and other staff members. Due to indefinite payment structure, the Queensland Health System had to face the grievances and conflicts of the staff members. Inaccurate estimation of the project scope and complexities- The Queensland Health Payroll System was failed because it was complex comprising of multiple employment awards, large workforce, and various project agreements that resulted into the replacement of QLD payroll system by the new payroll system(GelinasDull, 2009). Environmental and technological project drivers- This was another factor that contributed to the failure of the Queensland IS implementation projects. Classification of the factors into the phases of the first step of SDLC approach The factors responsible for the failure of the Queensland Health payroll system implementation project are classified into the relevant phases of the first step of the System Development Lifecycle Approach including System planning, Analysis, Design, Implementation and Maintenance/Review. These factors are following identified as per different phases of the System development Life Cycle approach:- Planning- This phase includes the factors that contributed to the failure of the payroll system implementation, such as the lack of planning and failure to keep the robust tendering process, early establishment of conditions of stakeholders participation and expectation management, lack of contingency planning, employment agreements, and review shared services central approach to centralization and flexibility. Analysis- This phase includes the factors, like weak governance structure, unclear roles, duties and responsibilities, lack of alignment of people, process and technology,environmental and technological project drivers, periodic review of the business needs in cope with the changing environment(Romney, Steinbart, Mula, McNamara Tonkin, 2012). Design- This phase includes the factors, such as failure to clean up the complex processes required for the implementation of a new system, lack of risk identification and management, poor system design and lack of supervision, lack of new system requirements, lack of commitment and self-responsibility, and lack of interest of the management to deliver the best system design solution. Implementation- This phase includes the factors, such as comprehensive change management, external environment and technological forces, lack of professionalized training and education, mature and inconsistent system testing, impact of system management changes, inaccurate estimation of the project scope and complexities, and lack of accountability of the payment of staff members(Eden Sedera, 2014). Maintenance/Review- This phase of SDLC approach includes ongoing project management, reviewing the system performance, ongoing stakeholders engagement, and lack of periodic planning, review and control of high risk projects. Recommendations to overcome the deficiencies for the future implementation of IS projects The Queensland health implementation project failure is one of the largest IS failures in Australia that requires a series of recommendations to overcome the deficiencies for the future implementation of the projects at the firm. The following recommendation could be applied to improve the information system implementation projects at the Queensland healthcare system:- Greater Communication- Communication is an important project management aspect that should be taken into account by the management of the Queensland Health System to ensure the successful implementation of the future IS projects. It is recommended for the senior management of the Queensland Health System to promote greater communication among the project team members for ensuring the successful completion of the future IS projects. The inter-organizational communication is imperative to the IS project management team to minimize the user-resistance barriers. An effective communication among the project management team members will assist to resolve the conflicts and disputes of the organizational members by protecting their interests. Along with this, the greater communication will bring them together to work on the projects for removing the deficiencies or loopholes in the IS projects by sharing their experiences, values and knowledge with each other(Considine, Parkes, OlesenBlount, 2016). For this, the communication tools, such as team viewer, Skype, social media (Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Google+), e-mails and intranets can be used to enhance the level of communication among the project team members at the organization. Improved data quality and system testing- It is important for the Queensland Health System to improve the quality of data and system tests for attaining the better IS project implementation results at the firm. The system testing will analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of the organizational IT system of the Queensland Health system to remove the problems of discrepancies, casual labors, overtime claims, inadequate and unstructured payroll system. Along with this, the system testing will improve the data quality by performing the data conversion security, integrity and quality management issues. The integrated computerized system can also be used to improve the quality of data(Cram101 Textbooks Reviews, 2016). Digital transformation of health services- The Queensland Senates digital transformation of the healthcare services will assist to enhance the knowledge and experiences of the project team members, clinicians, and digital health experts by using the digital technology. The digital transformation will also improve the digital hospital information infrastructure of the Queensland Healthcare System by performing all activities electronically(Gelinas, Dull Wheeler, 2014). The digital transformation of the health will resolve the payroll system implementation problems by supporting the quality of healthcare, consumer health, quality measurement and improvement, public accountability and clinical education and health researches. System Development Life Cycle- This approach is also known as application development life cycle that can be used by the project management team of the Queensland Health System to implement the IS projects successfully by overcoming the loopholes and shortcomings in the system design. This approach uses information systems, system engineering and software engineering to implement the process for planning, designing, testing and deploying an information system. This approach will be supportive to identify the deficiencies in the existing system and thereby defining the new system requirements after analyzing the environmental forces and technological changes. Clinician engagement- This is important for the project planning, evaluation, and delivery improvement of the healthcare services at the Queensland Health system for achieving the desired IT project results and healthcareefficiency(Gable, 2008). For this, the Queensland Clinical senate can develop a position statement on the clinician engagement to assist the healthcare, hospital and medicare services in order to measure the efficiency of the clinician engagement against the clinical senate statement. Advance care planning- The advance care planning can enhance the effectiveness of the Queensland healthcare services by improving the quality of end of healthcare for the patients. The Queensland Health System should focus on development and implementation of the standardized practices advance care planning documentation for providing the quality of primary care, hospital services, and medicare services. Clinical Teaching and training- The clinical learningand training is an important aspect that the Queensland Health System should be focused on for improving the quality of health system at the organization(Cooper, FunnellLee, 2012). For this, the Queensland Health System should focus on budget allocation, the learner-teacher experience, information governance, professionalized training, and team-based simulation training to improve the effectiveness of the healthcare system implementation projects at the firm. Conclusion From the above studies and analysis, it can be concluded that the Queensland payroll system implementation failure was one of the largest information system project implementation failures in the southern hemisphere that was caused from a range of factors examined by the Royal CommissionAustralia (healthcare system enquiry judiciary of Australia). Several recommendations were also suggested by the Royal Commission that can be applied to the Queensland healthcare system in order to overcome deficiencies in the IS implementation projects. References Bischoff, L. A. (2011).Porter's Value Chain and the REA Analysis as an Accounting Information System. Australia: Grin Verlag. Considine, B., Parkes, A., Olesen, K. Blount, Y. (2012).Accounting Information Systems: Understanding Business Processes. Australia: John Wiley Sons. Cooper, K., Funnell, W. Lee, J. (2012).Public Sector Accounting and Accountability in Australia. Australia: UNSW Press. Cram101 Textbooks Reviews (2016).Accounting Information Systems. UK: Cram101 textbooks Reviews. Gable, G. G. (2008).The Information Systems Academic Discipline in Australia: Australia: Anu E Press. Gelinas, J. U., Dull, B. R. Wheeler, P. (2014).Accounting: Sydney: Cengage Learning. Gelinas, U. Dull, R. (2009).Accounting Information Systems. USA: Cengage Learning. Hall, A. J. (2012).Accounting Information Systems. USA: Cengage Learning. Hall, A. J. (2015).Accounting Information Systems. Melbourne: Cengage Learning. Horngren, C., Harrison, W., Oliver, S., Best, P., Fraser, D., Tan, R.,Willet, R (2012).Accounting. Australia: Pearson Higher Education. Mancini, D., Vaassen, J. H. P. Dameri, P. R. (2013).Accounting Information Systems for Decision Making. Melbourne: Springer Science Business Media. Romney, M., Steinbart, P., Mula, J., McNamara, R. Tonkin, T. (2012).Accounting Information Systems Australasian Edition. Australia: Pearson Higher Education. Eden, R. Sedera, D. (2014).The Largest Admitted IT Project Failure in the Southern Hemisphere: A Teaching Case.Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/subh/Downloads/QueenslandHealth%20(5).pdf. Thite, M. Sandhu, K. (2014) where is my pay? critical success factors of a payroll system a system life cycle approach, The Australian Journal of Information Systems, Vol.18, No.2, Retrieved from: https://journal.acs.org.au/index.php/ajis/article/viewFile/820/582.

Port Security Challenges

Tackling the issues associated with port security is of high significance for international trade. Beginning from 2001, the reality of the terrorist threat to America’s ports has increased considerably including the risk of the nuclear attack with the so-called â€Å"dirty bomb†.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Port Security Challenges specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, terrorism is not the only port security challenge. Illegal human and contraband trafficking, piracy, and cargo security are other major port security risks. In the following paper, the problem of port security and its connections to the international trade will be observed in more details. The security challenges associated with port security are terrorism, piracy, illegal human and contraband trafficking, and cargo security (Blake, Schwartz, Schwartz, 2013). Each of the fields identified has the broad scope and variety of di mensions. With regards to this fact, port security guards face the tremendously difficult operational task that becomes even more complicated owing to the complex structure of ports, complicated system of port authority distribution between the public and private stakeholders, and interference from multiple governmental and private agencies (Blake et al., 2013). The significance of mega ports to international trade can be hardly underestimated since they are the main processing harbors for over 80 percent of overseas commerce (Blake et al., 2013). In connection to mega ports, the tactics of the weak or confronting an enemy with the low-tech approaches confounds the tactics of the strong or doing the same with the highly technological weapons by means of implementing unexpected solutions (Blake et al., 2013). Sadly, terrorists have learnt how to implement the tactics of the weak quite effectively, which can be proved by the high number of dangerous occurrences on the maritime transpo rt and in ports committed by them annually (Blake et al., 2013). However, the system of security in mega ports effectively implements to eliminate terrorists’ efforts and thus, the significance of these ports are crucial. In line with the above-mentioned information, the importance of rethinking asymmetric threats is conditioned by the changes that take place at the global arena (Blake et al., 2013). Terrorists begin to implement the newest and the most unpredictable methods to attack the vulnerable points in the port protection system. The society is left no other choice but to develop to the more complex and sophisticated safety and security systems.Advertising Looking for essay on transportation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, the threat of the â€Å"dirty bomb† which is the type of fission weapons remains high (Cruise, D’Erman, Grillot, 2013). Generally speaking, any bomb containing nuclear materials can be referred to as the â€Å"dirty bomb†. The relationship of this threat to port security is inevitable because placing such bombs into cargo is not a very complicated task due to the existing security gaps. The reality of a terrorist nuclear threat to America’s seaports is thus quite high. The situation is getting worse because of the sheer size of cargo being operated in ports on a daily basis and absence of the well-designed system of central authority overseeing the maritime system (Cruise et al., 2013). In conclusion, the vulnerability of American ports to the terroristic threats continues to be the reason of concern for both the government and commercial institutions engaging in the international trade. With regards to this problem, it is the high time to rethink asymmetric threats and undergo the needed changes both in thinking and implementing the newly developed security strategy in practice. References Blake, P., Schwartz, D., Schwartz, T. M. (2013). Upgrading NY-NJ Harbor: risks and challenges. International Journal of Business Continuity and Risk Management, 4(3), 266-282. Cruise, R. J., D’Erman, V. J., Grillot, S. R. (2013). Protecting Our Ports: Domestic and International Politics of Containerized Freight Security. New York, N.Y.: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. This essay on Port Security Challenges was written and submitted by user Bennett Odom to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Demarcation of Science and Non

Demarcation of Science and Non Introduction Demarcation of science and non-science is exceedingly complex because both are integral in generation of scientific knowledge. General definition of science is the study of the physical world using systemic observation and experimentation skills. Thus, key to science is observation and experimentation of infinite manifestations of the physical world to generate scientific knowledge. In contrast, non-science is a field of knowledge that deals with abstract manifestations of the world that science can neither observe nor experiment.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Demarcation of Science and Non-Science specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, these two fields of knowledge seem to be downright separable yet empirically impossible since, one field must exist for the other to exist. In essence, there can be no science if non-science does not exist, and vice versa. According to Callender (2005), science and n on-science are inseparable components of knowledge as they depict empirical and rational aspects of knowledge respectively (1). Science derives its observations and experiments on the non-science world by making hypotheses that are non-science, and eventually, through the process of testing and experimentation, hypotheses become theories that explain scientific facts. Ironically, scientific facts tested using non-science hypotheses seek to differentiate science and non-science, yet they are interdependent. Hence, it is impossible to demarcate science from non-science on a case-by-case basis. Impossible Demarcation As aforementioned, it is impossible to demarcate science from non-science because they are integrated fields of knowledge in that; one cannot exist without the other. For instance, untested knowledge is non-science while tested knowledge is science. This means that, for science to exist there must be some untested knowledge that needs testing through observation and experi mentation. Scientific knowledge originated from the non-scientific world that is full of facts awaiting experimentation to qualify as scientific facts. Shermer (2001) argues that, scientific study entails the interplay of inductive and deductive reasoning (22). Inductive reasoning involves the use of observations, experiments, hypotheses, and theories in making general inferences of a certain phenomenon, while deductive reasoning is the application of theories in analysis and extrapolation of a given phenomena. Critically, both inductive and deductive reasoning have non-scientific elements for they both rely on hypotheses and generalization of findings with certain assumptions. Hence, it is impossible to demarcate science and non-science explicitly. Demarcation of science and non-science is quite impractical because science originates from non-science. Formulation of theories begins from formulation of hypotheses, then experimentation to test and provide evidence of assertions in hy potheses, and ultimately validation of the hypotheses as theories.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More If demarcation of science and non-science existed in scientific experiments, then there would be no false hypotheses because they are unscientific. List (1992) argues that, it is ambiguous to consider a given hypothesis unscientific yet it is scientific to falsify it (50). In other words, demarcation of science and non-science will create ambiguities in science. Hypotheses and theories are indispensable elements of science because they act as a bridge between scientific and non-scientific worlds. Both science and non-science theories have helped human beings to explain the origin of life in the universe. Creation and evolution theories are the leading schools of thoughts that hold plausible explanations about the origin of life. Although both theories seem to be plausible, bot h have not proved, beyond a reasonable doubt, how their assertions are true in modern society. Creationists believe that life originated from a creator of which science cannot test whether it is true or false. On the contrary, evolutions infer that life originated from basic molecules that evolved throughout the history of the universe and led to the emergence of diverse creatures. Creation theory is unscientific for its basis is on the belief, while evolution theory is scientific because of its empirical inferences. Forster (2004) argues that, commonality of creation and evolution theory is that they have assumptions and seek to explain the same phenomena (28). Thus, demarcation of science and non-science can severely affect scientific claims of evolution theory for it has failed to prove the occurrence of evolution, even though it is scientific. Moreover, non-science is an indispensable part of science because people use non-scientific principles of reasoning in ascertaining wheth er a given assertion or hypothesis is valid and sound. Although mere reasoning is unscientific because no one can test and prove its validity, it is part of the scientific process. Kabay (2005) asserts that, according to descriptive criteria, assertion should be testable in principle, logic or otherwise, for its hypothesis or theory to be scientific (7). Despite the fact that scientific evidences emanate from observation and experimentation, they must fulfil the principle of testability and logic for them to support a hypothesis or a theory. Since, design of experiments and logic are inseparable in scientific studies, then science and non-science are also inseparable. Conclusion Therefore, it is impossible to demarcate science from non-science on a case-by-case basis because they are integrated fields of study and knowledge that are interdependent. Science consists of tested field of knowledge while non-science consists of untested field of knowledge; thus, science relies on non-sci ence to expand its discoveries and increase the tested form of knowledge.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Demarcation of Science and Non-Science specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For scientific field to expand, it must delve into the field of non-science to falsify numerous hypotheses, theories, and assertions. In addition, since science differentiates science from non-science, demarcation of the two will limit the integration of science into other fields of knowledge such as psychology, philosophy, and sociology, which do not need laboratory testing or experimentation, for they are abstract constructs that are impossible to measure experimentally. Bibliography Callender, Craig. 2005. Philosophy of Science and Metaphysics. Continuum Companion  to the Philosophy of Science, 1-24. Forster, Malcolm. 2004. An Introduction to Philosophy of Science. Philosophy, 1-28. Kabay, Martin. 2005. Science and Non-Science: An Epist emological Conflict.  Philosophy of Science, 1-24. List, Charles. 1992. Science and Pseudoscience; Criteria of Demarcation. Reason  Papers 8, 49-58. Shermer, Michael. 2001. The Borderlands of Science: Where Sense Meets Nonsense. New York: Oxford University Press.

W3Qop Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

W3Qop - Essay Example t. c. The sites are applied by companies to promote sales through the internet. The people who visit these sites can create their profile, which allows them to display their interests and thoughts regarding various issues. Companies utilize the opportunity to identify consumer’s views regarding their products. They use the sites to promote brand awareness especially when a new brand is launched. Consumer confidence is increased when they interact through these sites. They get to know how the views of other consumers and also their questions can be addressed in unison (Hackler & Saxton, 2007). Social networks can be used to boost business especially when the marketing campaigns are designed to match the business objectives. The advertisements target specific market segments ensuring that their needs are met. The sites are significant in meeting the needs of a wide customer base especially due to the fact that the use of internet is growing rapidly globally. Consumers are allowed to interact in online forums wherever they are, and they create a large audience for the marketers. The swiftness through which information is passed to all consumers is significant in making quick sales than the conventional forms of marketing. Moreover, the marketers have an opportunity to demonstrate to the consumers through video clips or demos. The sites are flexible and the marketers can change the content fast to suit consumer demands. Value addition can be accomplished through allowing the consumers to vote for their interests to be integrated in the product. In essence, the social network s have helped businesses to make a major milestone in promoting their products (Turban et al. 2008). Â   Managers do not like problems especially due to the time they consume making it difficult to accomplish good plans. Problems generate uncertainties in business and they always seem imminent. When managers identify problems, they ensure that they are

Social Stratification and Social Inequality Essay

Social Stratification and Social Inequality - Essay Example As compared to America, Japan is a much more patriarchal society which means that culturally, it would be difficult to find women as head or corporations or even on the directorial board of a company. Chieko (2001) reports that the position of women in the workforce is less than forty percent which is far lower than international standards. Women are seen to be fulfilling their duties in traditional roles rather than modern roles which are more acceptable in America. A quick examination for the American Fortune 500 list of companies shows that in 2003, women held 14% of board seats in various companies while they only had a 10% representation back in 1995. One in ten companies on the same list had 25% or more women on the boards (Lockwood, 2005). On the other hand, when it comes to Japan, the Asian Human Rights Commission (2001, Pg. 1) reports that, â€Å"The equality of men and women has not been fully achieved in practice, for the traditional concept that the woman is to stay at home is still deeply rooted†. Even when the women get to work, they face issues which are similar to the ones faced by American women workers. Of course the American women have some recourse in terms of legal action against sexual harassment at work but Japan has no law against sexual harassment. The Japanese government knows that there is a problem with sexual harassment since their own survey has shown that half of women working in Japan have faced sexual harassment. Some reports place the figure as high as 70% of women having faced sexual harassment since the majority do not report it (Asian Human Rights Commission, 2001). Perhaps the most significant problem for women in Japan comes from the way some Japanese laws may be structured to work against women. For example, if a woman reports that she was raped, she may have to prove with physical evidence that she resisted the rape. Other factors, such as the courts considering physical violence to be a natural

Political Parties Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political Parties - Research Paper Example The normal people in the general population belong to this party electorate. These supporters or those who identify with a particular political party often show a strong tendency to vote for the candidate of that particular party. In addition, they register themselves as members of that party. These supporters tend to support all the policies of their political party blindly. There are various opinions among various scholars regarding party identification. While some opine that party identification is the result of people’s attachment to certain core political values, some others claim that party identification leads to political core values in an individual. In either way, political identification is an essential element in modern national politics. According to people like Green, palmquist, and Schickler, party identification is the sense of personal attachment one feels to a particular party as a result of the closeness he or she has to the social groups associated with tha t party (132). To illustrate, people often decide their political party taking into consideration how they feel about the social group which makes the base of that particular political party. The study by Goren proves that party identification is stable and rather long lasting (882). Admittedly, the first benefit of party identification is the proper representation of people’s requirements and their satisfaction. ... Secondly, though there is the claim that party identification leads to partisan politics, there is the counter argument that party identification leads to a greater degree of unity. For example, Larry shows that an individual’s value selection is greatly influenced by their party affiliation (122). That means a large chunk of population, which believes in a particular political party, tends to blindly support what the party propagates. It will help in reducing individual differences in opinion to a great extent. This is evident from Feldman’s report that party identification leads to greater voter turnout in elections (431). That means identification to a political party encourages participation in democratic process. As Fiorina opines, party identification is the best way to ensure effective running of democracies. For instance, such political parties are the only platform for candidates to reach the masses in a short time (89). Without the presence of parties, the ent ire system will be in chaos as so many candidates might turn up and the population will be divided into so many divisions based on the demands of each small section. Thus, political system becomes an important aspect of a successful democracy. Along with this, political parties play a great role in coordinated social interaction. Forgetting minor differences in individual perceptions, people gather under the banner of political parties and promote group survival and welfare activities instead of individual needs. Finally, in times of trouble and complex social situations, parties provide cues that guide people. Thus, party identification is an important element of party system and political participation, and these both are essential for democracy. 2. Developments in party Identification

Climate Change A Big Market Failure Politics Essay

Climate Change A Big Market Failure Politics Essay Lord Stern has described climate change as the biggest market failure the world has seen. What are the major economic features of climate change that make it such a significant market failure? Outline carefully the policy challenges of addressing two of these features. He, who knows what sweets and virtues are in the ground, the waters, the plants, the heavens, and how to come at these enchantments, is the rich and royal man. Only as far as the masters of the world have called in nature to their aid, can they reach the height of magnificence. Whilst thinking about which topic to choose amongst I got this Having covered environmental issues as a journalist for many years, I have become increasingly alarmed about the problem of climate change and its negative impacts, so I decided to join the Scottish Green Party as the party that I have seen taking this issue most seriously. from web site of The Scottish Green Party quoted by Louise Batchelor who has received the British Environment and Media prize twice for her reporting of environmental issues on BBC Scotland. If today climate change is being made slogan of political campaign, that means it is worth to think about it. Market failure is a theory which arises when the distribution of goods and services by a free market is not Pareto efficient. Market failures are generally linked with failure of competition, public goods, externalities, incomplete markets, information asymmetries and other macroeconomic disequilibrium. (Jozeph Stiglitz, Economics of Public Sector, 3rd ed, p. 77-85) In economic terms externality stems from actions of subject which affect others in positive or negative way. In first case person or organization may impose cost on others but does not reimburse it, whereas the latter may cause benefit to others without reaping all of the benefits of the activity. Models where the actions of individual or the firm injures others is called negative externality, however the opposite is referred to as negative externality. The most obvious patterns include climate change and water pollution. Since the end of XX century world community has been facing serious environmental problems, so economic studies of climate change are juvenile and will develop as we face new policy challenges. Emissions by previous generations which polluted our ecosystem demonstrate damage for contemporary society as well as for posterity. While occasionally used synonymously with global warming, the climate change implies a considerable change in a climatic condition which has si gnificant economic, environmental and social effects. It may be restricted to a specific locality, or may happen across the whole globe. Not surprisingly, humankind is in the central figure that causes this. Certainly the worlds environment has always changed owing to natural reasons.   But what is going down presently is that man-made aspects are now warming up the worlds climate at a more rapidly pace.   This increase of carbon emissions set in motion through the industrial revolution. In pre-industrial era that is, the time prior to the Industrial Revolution none of modern technologies automobiles, aircrafts, plant, phones, TV sets exited. The Industrial Revolution came about when people commenced to mass scale production in industries by means of machinery that worked with energy from coal, and later on using  oil, gas, and electrical power.   This made it much easier for people to produce goods and facilitated the advancement of new technology.  Since Industrial Revolution which started round 1750 and picked up the pace in the 1800s and 1900s, civilization has been using fossil fuels in an intensive way. As a consequence of this actions atmosphere has been polluted with large amount of greenhouse gases. The more society manufactures and devours, the more environment is changed we are surrounded by. Climate change is an unavoidable and important worldwide challenge with enduring effects for the sustainable growth of all states that world society has had to deal with up to present time. The relationship connecting climate change and sustainable growth are strong. Climate change influences roundabouts through some channels such as storms, heatwaves, sea level rise, hurricanes, droughts, and floods create threats for resources of water, food and agriculture. In its turn these unquestionably living standard of population of developing countries. So, developing countries are expected to get the hardest destruction by climate change. Techniques to tackle climate change necessitate worldwide societys aims to be completely consistent with for economic and civil progress. This task that go beyond national frames and calls for solutions at the global plane. According to Nicholas Stern, climate change should be regarded as externality, because people who release emission to nature do not compensate for it. As a greatest and widest-ranging market failure, it is a challenge for economists itself. Influence of climate change very expansive and interrelate with other types of market failures, from which additional complicated policy problems stem. Lord Stern states that if world society does not take action, the on the whole, overheads and risks of climate change will be correspondent to losing at least 5% of world GDP continuously. If a broader series of shocks is taken into consideration, the approximation of harm could rise to more than 20% of total output. Lets see it in examples of sectoral perspectives. (The Economics of Climate Change. The Stern Review. Nicholas Stern. Cabinet Office HM Treasury, 2006, UK. http://www.webcitation.org/5nCeyEYJr. Retrieved 2010-01-31.) Agriculture is sphere of influence of humankind extremely responsive to climate changes. Forces changing our climate are as well important to farm production. Anthropological actions have already changed atmospheric features such as ozone, rainfall, carbon dioxide level. Although production of food may take advantage of warmer climate, the increased probability of natural disasters like heatwaves, floods and droughts will generate problems for agricultural producers. Actually Paul Krugmans statement in his article on NY Times shows the trouble with its seriousness: But the evidence tells a different, much more ominous story. While several factors have contributed to soaring food prices, what really stands out is the extent to which severe weather events have disrupted agricultural production. And these severe weather events are exactly the kind of thing wed expect to see as rising concentrations of greenhouse gases change our climate which means that the current food price surge may be just the beginning. ( http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/07/opinion/07krugman.html ) Source: Escalating food prices, UNICEF February 2011 report. Analyses of the effects of global climate change imply that climate change may lead to significant decline in agricultural output in developing nation states. Nowadays international community is getting more concerned about matters vital to developing countries, such as potential changes in total food availability and world food prices. Among other causes 2007-2008 and recent 2011 food crisis are attributed to climate change. First one, was due to the catastrophe of the most terrible drought in a century in Australia, that is why the 2006 crop summed only 9.8m tonnes. After America, Australia is on average the second leading exporter of grain, and in normal times crop would be about 25 million tonnes. Because of that drought world stock of wheat has reached it lowest possible level since 1979. The droughts impact on rice has made the greatest shock on the rest of the world, to date. It is one factor causative to bubbling prices which is supposed it is among the initial signs that a w arming planet is starting to have an effect on production of food. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7289194.stm) According to Reuters food prices have increased by 11.7% in 11 months of 2010 while the general price level (inflation) has upsurged only by  1.9%. This fact indicates a severe difference and obliges  preventative  measures to impede food crisis founding starving nations. The caution for food crisis in   Sri Lanka was issued due to the bad weather condition occurred during the first few weeks of 2011 which caused massive floods in eastern,  northern  and north central regions of Sri Lanka where the extensive crop growing were taking place. More than 50% season harvest was destroyed  resulting  in  21% of the rice cultivation of Sri Lanka being destroyed. And the irrigation system of the country is damaged making it unworkable to do forthcoming season cultivation which will promote reduction of the rice cultivation in the future. Apart from that vegetable prices have gone up by more than 200% as a result of floods and the live stock of 240,000 were destroyed which wi ll again result in high price of meat, milk and eggs. And  Meteorological Department of Sri Lanka predicts for a drought period towards the mid 2011 which will once more upshot in damage of crops and make people starve again. (http://www.tutebox.com/business/economics/what-is-foodflation/) Africa responds especially badly to climate change given that it is principally agrarian, suffers an undesirable price shock to its exports, has a low capacity to regulate agricultural portfolios, and has a low elasticity of substitution between domestic and imported cereals. The orientation in the direction of cereal self-reliance averts the economy from taking benefit of lower world cereal prices by changing expenditure towards imported cereals. The remarkable raise in cereal imports in Asia and Latin America leads to a high demand for foreign currency. Balance of trade stability is realized by currency devaluation, by 3.5% in Asia and 1% in Latin America. Real exchange appreciation lessens openness of African economy. There is a 5% appreciation of the currency in response to a complex of changes, but primarily due to a large decline in demand for imports. The cereal sector yield shock of -17% cannot be compensated by an increase in cereal imports. In response, the domestic price o f cereals rises which induces resource reallocation towards cereal production. Import demand for cereals and industrial goods declines, since real incomes of all households decrease, leading to a lower demand for foreign exchange. The supply of foreign currency falls as export crop production decreases both because productivity falls and in order to allow a shift towards cereal production. The depreciating effect from lower supply of foreign currency is overwhelmed by the significant decrease in industrial imports, which are much larger in value terms than export crops, causing a net appreciation. (Economic and Welfare Impacts of Climate Change on Developing Countries by Paul Winters et al.) Some restricted views claim that climate change will not greatly affect other sectors than agriculture. But according to well constructed climate-economy models, which go beyond above, environmental changes have great influence on other spheres of economy as well. More broadly still, climatic effects may extend to health, crime, conflict, and migration, all of which could have first-order implications for measuring the policy response. (http://wallstreetpit.com/23481-what-are-the-likely-economic-effects-of-climate-change) Dell et al. 2008, find that warming has historically had negative impacts on economic growth but only in poor countries. The effects in poor countries are remarkably large with a 1 degree Celsius rise in temperature reducing economic growth by about 1.1 percentage points. Looking underneath national growth, the study also finds large effects on both agriculture and industrial value added, in addition to effects on aggregate investment, political stability, and innovation. Furthermore, study of historical data relating national weather variation to export performance. The findings confirm large negative impacts of temperature on poor countries. On average, we find that a poor country being 1 degree Celsius warmer in a given year reduces the growth of that countrys exports by between 2.0 and 5.7 percentage points in that year. As in Dell et al. (2008), we find no effect on rich countries exports. The fact that exports are even more sensitive to temperature than overall GDP is consistent with the idea that domestic consumption is relatively steady, so that volatility in domestic production translates into greater volatility in net exports. (Dell, Melissa, Benjamin F Jones, and Benjamin A Olken (2008), Climate Shocks and Economic Growth: Evidence from the Last Half Century, NBER Working Paper 14132.)

Leakey, Richard :: essays research papers fc

Richard Leakey- Homo habilis Richard Leakey was born December 19, 1944 in Nairobi, Kenya. His parents were the esteemed anthropologists Louis and Mary Leakey. Richard first became a tour guide in Kenya, but changed his mind when he found an extinct human jaw. He then schooled himself by completing a two-year secondary education program in six months. From 1967-77 he and his co-workers dug up around 400 fossils, that accounted for 230 individuals. The most important discovery was an almost complete skull found in 1977, which Richard believe to be a new species called Homo habilis. Richard Leakey’s accomplishments are discovering the crania of Australopithecus boisei in 1969 with the archaeologist Glynn Isaac on the East shores of Lake Turkana, Homo habilis in 1972, and Homo erectus in1975. He was appointed administrative director in 1968 of the National Museum of Kenya, and in director 1974. Since 1989 he has been director of the Wildlife and Conservation Management Service, Ke nya. His publications include Origins in 1977 and The Making of Mankind in 1981, both with Roger Lewin. Australopithecus africanus inhabited the earth roughly 3 - 1.6 million years ago. The characteristic difference between the Ausrtalopithicus afarenis and africanus is the height and brain capacity. The height of the africanus is 1.4 m and the brain capacity is approximately 400 - 600 cc. Smaller incisor teeth and a slightly flatter face are also noted. The afarensis has a height of 1.2 m and a cranial capacity of 380 - 450 cc. Sticks, and stones were most likely used to gather food by the Australopithecus africanus. Homo habilis (also known as "handy man") is theorized to have lived with Australopithecus africanus. Homo habilis was known as â€Å"handy man† because he used primative stone tools. The flat face and large molars of the Homo habilis resemble the Australopithecus lineage. The brain size of the Homo habilis is about 700 cc which is larger than the Austr alopithecus). The "apelike" body structure with long arms and a small body was a characteristic of the Homo habilis. Recent discoveries, such as from Lake Turkana, of better-preserved fossils have revealed new insights on early Homo in the Plio-Pleistocene. Of this new habilis material, the most amazing is a nearly complete cranium discovered in 1972 at East Lake Turakana. This individual, with a cranial capacity if 775 cm3, is clearly outside the known range for Australopithecines and it overlaps the lower boundary for Homo.

Poverty and Destitution

Defining Poverty Poverty has been defined in many different ways. Some attempt to reduce it to numbers, while others believe that a more vague definition must be used. In the end, a combination of both methods is best. DiNitto and Cummins (2007), in their book â€Å"Social Welfare, Politics and Public Policy,† present six definitions and explanations of poverty. Social reformers Webb and Webb (1911) present another angle on poverty. Essentially, all definitions are correct, the debate is of which to use when creating policy. â€Å"Less than† Poverty DiNitto and Cummings (2007) first present poverty as depravation. They explain that poverty as depravation is an insufficiency in an â€Å"item required to maintain a decent standard of living† such as clothing, food, shelter or medical care. At first glance this definition seems to sum up the general understanding of poverty. However, the issue lies with the â€Å"decent standard of living. † This statement implies that there is an agreed upon standard for a comfortable or decent lifestyle. To be considered in poverty by this definition one would have to live below the invisible standard of decent living. This is the ‘less than enough† definition of poverty and is the most commonly used definition of poverty to date. Second, DiNitto and Cummings (2007) described poverty as inequality. Poverty as inequality refers to the â€Å"inequality in the distribution of income. † This definition is such a vague generalization that practically any person can make a legitimate claim at being impoverished. Any individual can claim that they receive an unequal amount of income and therefore are in relative poverty- having less than someone else and are entitled to more. This is the â€Å"less than that guy† definition of poverty. The last â€Å"less than† poverty definition is poverty as lack of human capitol. This definition, according to DiNitto and Cummings (2007), describes that in a free market productivity is key and those with low productivity are impoverished. If an individual has low productivity because of a lack of skills, knowledge, education or training then they will receive a low amount of reimbursement for their production. This is the â€Å"less skills† definition of poverty. â€Å"That’s just the way it is† Poverty There are three different â€Å"that’s jus the way it is† types of poverty; poverty as culture, poverty as exploitation and poverty as structure. The first, poverty as culture is described by DiNitto and Cummings (2007) as poverty becoming the norm for a subset of individuals. DiNitto and Cummings (2007) explain that it is not just a â€Å"way of life† but also a set of attitudes, lack of self-respect and lack of incentive within the group that perpetuates poverty among them. Poverty as exploitation was sociologists Marx and Weber’s basis for socialism. Poverty as exploitation assumes that the upper and middle classes are exploiting the lower class by using them as cheap labor and paying them insufficient salaries to escape poverty. This definition presents that possibility that poverty does not have to exist, but that through cooperation of the classes poverty can be eradicated. Poverty as structure is described by DiNitto and Cummings (2007) as the continuation of poverty due to â€Å"institutional and structural components. † Institutional discrimination refers to the inequality in opportunity within the institution. DiNitto and Cummings (2007) gives the example that poor school districts are often given less funding and fewer resources for their students. With fewer resources and frequently larger classes, the students in these school districts do not get a full or proper education resulting, ultimately, in the continuation of poverty. â€Å"Destitute† Poverty After all of these definitions and attempts to explain or better understand poverty there is still an essential piece missing. Defining poverty by comparing one individual to another or to a number is not sufficient. There is no agreed upon standard of living and in some definitions anyone could make a reasonable argument that they live in poverty, despite their income or resources. However, there is another definition not mentioned in our text. Berleman (1970) in his article â€Å"Poverty- Some Dilemmas in Definition† quoted early twentieth century social reformers Webb and Webb as they describe poverty. Webb and Webb explain that destitution is â€Å"the condition of being without one or more of the necessities of life, in such a way that health and strength is so impaired as to eventually imperil life itself. This definition provides the most concrete of standards as well as provides a harsh view of what poverty really is. Preventing Destitution The agenda to end poverty is nothing new in American politics. However, with the recent changes in the US economy the war on poverty is raging and politicians are making daring statements and promises. In the 2008 Compass Forum Barack Obama bol dly vowed to halve poverty within 10 years. Later, Republican John McCain declared if he were voted president that the â€Å"eradication of poverty will be top priority of the McCain administration. The interesting thing about these comments is the plan each politician created to support them. Both John McCain and Barack Obama followed in the footsteps of politician John Edwards, supporting the plan that he had once proposed. The plan included a list of actions that needed to be taken to alleviate poverty in the US. However, a the top of the list were only temporary solutions including increasing minimum wage and unemployment insurance, revising the earned income tax credit and child tax credits as well as government funded child care and creating new jobs. In the long run these solutions will not hold. Raising minimum wage and increasing tax credits are a never ending process that may lighten the burden of low income families and workers, giving the illusion temporarily that the plan is working. Still minimum wage and tax credits would have to be increased regularly to keep this illusion from collapsing and landing US poverty rates back in the exact same position. Much lower on the â€Å"to do list† to eradicate poverty were programs that will yield increasingly higher and longer lasting results such as Pell grants, school-to-work programs and vocational rehabilitation for former prisoners and disabled workers. Providing the necessary resources and skills to impoverished individuals with the desire to work will allow them to not only acquire higher paying positions but also provide access to the resources they need to maintain the position. Empowering an individual to rise above poverty by providing resources and skills will have a slower rising, but longer lasting positive result. Increasing minimum wage and tax credits may likely bring those on the edge of the poverty line slightly above it, but what about those who are destitute? How is another $. 0 to $. 40 per hour going to alleviate their destitution? How is a child tax credit going to benefit them when they are not able to feed their child? There are two ends of the poverty spectrum that need our politicians focus; the focus needs to be on increasing the resources for low income families for affordable health care, food stamp programs, school meal programs and temporary assistance for needy families. Then the next step is not a tempo rary tax credit or increase in minimum wage, but support in vocational skills, education and training. Long term decreases in poverty rates will only occur after there is an increase in nutritional support, medical attention, education and training for low-income Americans References Berleman, W. (1970). Poverty–Some Dilemmas in Definition. Growth & Change, 1(4), 27. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. Besharov, D. , & Call, D. (2009). Income Transfers Alone Won't Eradicate Poverty. Policy Studies Journal, 37(4), 599-631. DiNitto, D. & Cummings, L. (2007) Social Welfare, Politics and Public Policy. Pearson Education, Boston, MA. P 80-118, 161-197, 250-379.

Gorgias essays

Gorgias essays Imagine walking into the classroom just as your instructor is handing back grades on a major test you recently took. She hands you yours and you see you have a grade much higher than you expected, in fact, it is one of the highest grades in the class. You suddenly exclaim,Thank you, Jesus,? so that it is heard by everyone in class. Before realizing it, you have just committed a crime. In today's society, prayer in schools is essential to help one get through the day. Denying an individual his or her right to pray in a public setting seems to strip them of their First Amendment rights, which claim citizens have the freedom of speech. The issue of prayer in schools has had much debate over the past century, when the Supreme Court made its first ruling regarding religion in schools. During the case ofIllinois vs. McCollum? in 1948, the court ruled that allowing religious teachers to come into public schools to give religious instruction violated the First Amendment's Establishment Clause, which prohibits government establishment of religion. The court said the policy tears down thewall" separating church and state, (a phrase created by Thomas Jefferson in a letter to the Westbury Baptists after the Constitution had been written and ratified. Since 1948, there have been numerous trials regarding the same issue. On June 25, l962, the U.S. Supreme Court removed prayer from our nation's schools. 39 million students were forbidden to do what they and their predecessors had been doing since the founding of our nation, which was publicly calling upon the name of the Lord at the beginning of each school day. The U.S. Supreme Court's decision to remove prayer from schools, has been leading to other religious removals. Even thePledge of Allegiance? has had some dispute because it states that the United States isone nation under God.? Then people began to think,Well, what about those who don't believe in God? Are they ...

Indian country revisited essays

Indian country revisited essays Indian Country Revisited When I was younger, I asked my teacher, all the time in fact, why do we have to learn this. Her response was always, youll need it when you grow up. Math, science, and English, I understood, but history was different. She said that we must learn our history so as not to repeat the errors of the past. I still dont believe this. In Vietnam, Americans, foreigners to their land, came in and sought to take what wasnt ours to take. Did we not also do this when we, the British, came to the Americas to take the land. Sure we said that we were seeking religious freedom, but was that why we were really there? We were in Vietnam to fight for economic freedom (against communism), but was that really why? Vietnam was nothing more than the entire cowboys and Indians situation all over again, but with a different outcome. I propose then, why need history? If this situation was the same as taking the Indians land, then we didnt learn from our history, and therefore it is worthless. In Robin Moores, The Green Berets, he even refers to the entire conflict as Indians and Cowboys, but how accurate is this? For references I will be referring to Tim OBriens If I Die in a Combat Zone, and Phillip Caputos, Rumor of War. In The Green Berets, OBrien was a young intellectual who was drafted into the war years after it started. He was opposed to the war the entire time, and was very jaded that he had to go and fight. In this book, he presents the Vietnamese much in the same way that a family of cowboys would have described the Indians in the 1800s. He was forced into the war and hated it, and the only way that he could bring himself to fight it was to dehumanize and hate the Vietnamese. They are portrayed as a primitive race, living in grass huts and making it by on almost nothing. They have all of these tradition ...

CAREER PLAN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Physiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

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Unfair Dismissal And The Equality Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Unfair Dismissal And The Equality Act - Essay Example The first thing that a tribunal has to look at before it makes an award for a claim brought under unfair dismissal is to first look at the substantial merits of the case as was shown in the case of Iceland Frozen foods limited .vs. Jones the tribunal held that as to the substantive merits of the case they did not regard Mr. Jones failure to be serious and did not regard it reasonable to dismiss him on those grounds. Does Sarah woods case have substantial merit to constitute a claim? In the case of Sarah Wood, her employer discriminated against her on the basis that she could not speak Spanish and that she was not a Catholic. This also led to harassment from his employer and eventually her dismissal. The Employment Act provides for two tests when looking at a claim for unfair dismissal. It will first look to see if the employer acted reasonably in dismissing the claimant and further if the employer had fair reasons to dismiss the claimant. In the case of Sarah Woods, her employer did not have fair reasons to dismiss her and he did not act reasonably in doing so. There are dismissals that the employment tribunal regards to be automatically unfair even if the process of the dismissal was appropriate. These dismissals are those that fall under discrimination and especially based on race and religion. Race and religion fall under protected characteristics. There are several protected characteristics (S.4 of the Equality Act 2010) laid down in the Equality Act. These characteristics are aimed to be protected from discrimination (Deringer, 2010, p.1). Mr. Rodriguez disregarded the fact that Sarah woods had protected characteristic and contravened the equality act. This led to the discrimination of his employee. Which form of discrimination than did Mr. Rodriguez portray?

Should Wealthy Nations Be Required to Share Their Wealth with Poorer Nations by Providing Essay Example for Free

Should Wealthy Nations Be Required to Share Their Wealth with Poorer Nations by Providing Essay In recent years, there is a controversial issue is that the rich countries should share their assets among the poorer countries or not. Most of the public agreed that it is a necessary activity to help the poor improve their lives. On the other hand, some tax payers resolutely keep their opinions when they supposed that the governments of poorer nations are liability to take care of their inhabitants by themselves. As a supporter of sharing with the poor, I think that we have many reasons to establish philanthropic organizations to support the wretch in other countries and territories. Several main reasons will be analyzed in this essay. Beginning with lack of natural resources, poor nations cannot take advantages of fertile soil to cultivate or minerals to exploit. Moreover, weak education causes many consequences, one of them is a large number of residents are illiterate so they cannot approach modern life by knowledge. Because of that, they always live with the shortage of food, clothes and other articles of daily necessities. They do not have enough money and technology to improve the environment so it brings them to need the help of other countries for surviving. Besides, economic crises occur after several years, as a stage of the economic cycle. Given their capabilities and power, rich nations often recover more quickly than their poor counterparts. This means that the poor is not only more prone to negative impacts of economic crises but also in more difficult circumstances. In these cases, if we do not join our hands to offer them financial assistance, then the gap between the rich and the poor is become wider, lead to the loss of economic balance. When the living standard has been improved, they can afford to quality good and the trade all over the world will be more prosperous. Last but not least, sharing wealth with the poor is a humanitarian activity, and anyone can do it. This is the best lesson for children about the important of sharing in hard times. From that, the love of human races will be larger. However, the government of poorer countries should not only rely on others. They also have to improve their own situation by carrying out the reform in education, changing some unsound customs and opening to obtain the knowledge of the world. In conclusion, if the richer can give their wealth and the poorer can improve by themselves, we will soon have a thriving future.